Introduction
To a newcomer, the Philippines seems to be very westernized. Blue jeans and T-shirts are everywhere, English is widely spoken, Christianity in the form of Catholicism is the dominant religion, and rock-and-roll music pours out of the radio. These similarities with western countries, however, are superficial. Centuries of travel to the Philippines by Malays, Indians, Chinese, and Arabs, as well as colonization by Spaniards, Americans, and Japanese, have all left their influences, but the deep and abiding culture of the Philippines is eastern. The structure of families, the way children are raised, and how people are expected to interact with each other and with society are strongly Asian.
The Philippines is an archipelago roughly the size of Italy. It is made up of 7,107 islands, of which about 2,000 are inhabited. The three main island groups are Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao. They are surrounded by the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean, and the Sulu Sea. The Philippines has a population of about 100 million people, 20 million of whom live in the greater Manila area on the island of Luzon. The Philippine islands are volcanic, with rugged mountainous interiors, flat rice-growing areas in the plains, terraced rice fields in the mountains, and thousands of miles of coastline. Manila is a 5-hour flight from Tokyo, 4 hours from Bangkok, 2 hours from Hong Kong, 8 hours from Dubai, 10 hours from Sydney, 12 hours from Europe, 16 hours from San Francisco, and 20 hours from New York.
History
Recorded history begins with the ‘discovery’ of these islands by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, who claimed them for Spain. They were named after King Philip II in 1543, and Manila was declared the capital. Permanent occupation by the Spanish began in 1565, and by 1571 the Spanish controlled the entire country, except for the strictly Islamic Sulu archipelago in the south. The Spanish remained in the Philippines for 333 years, leaving Catholicism and centralized government as their major legacy.
The surge for independence from Spain began in the late 1800s with three Filipino heroes, Jose Rizal, Emilio Aguinaldo, and Andres Bonifacio, leading the rebellion. The American navy sank the Spanish fleet and promised support to the new nation, and Aguinaldo declared independence on 12 June 1898. The Americans, however, took over the Philippines as their one and only colony. Aguinaldo declared war, and the War of Philippine Independence against the US lasted two years, until Aguinaldo was captured in 1901.
For the next 40 years, the Philippines existed as an American colony. The Americans preserved the allegiance of the landed elite by allowing them to maintain the system of land tenancy that formed the basis of their wealth. This translated into the political power that the same families still maintain today. The colonial plan centered on programs to educate and Americanize the islands. A free public school system was established, with instruction in English, and American cultural values were disseminated through it. Church and State were separated, a public health system was initiated, and the patterning of the legal system after democracy began. A free-trade policy, accompanied by much exploitation of raw materials and cheap labor, encouraged U.S. investment and the development of an import-export economy, which resulted in mechanization and rapid modernization of the islands.
A Philippine Commonwealth with domestic self-government was established in 1935 as the start of a 10-year transition to full independence, and Manuel Quezon was elected president. The advent of World War II, however, proved disastrous, and Japan took over the Philippines in 1942. Americans and Filipinos fought together to repel the invaders, but the Japanese took Manila and forced most American troops to retreat. The Japanese held the Philippines for 3 years. American forces returned in 1944 and allied with the Filipinos during a year of intense fighting that culminated in Japanese surrender in 1945. A million Filipinos died in the struggle and Manila was the war’s second most devastated allied city—after Warsaw. The economy was ruined.
The new Philippine Republic became independent on 4 July 1946. Reconstruction and rehabilitation continued for 20 years after the war, under the successful guidance of Presidents Roxas, Quirino, Magsaysay, Garcia, and Macapagal. In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected president. He remained in office for 21 years. Marcos is credited with increasing rice production and developing a workable infrastructure, along with other achievements during his first term. But his reluctance to give up power increased over the years, and this influential lawyer became more and more authoritarian. Marcos declared martial law in 1972, which lasted until 1981. He restructured the nation’s constitution to fit his personal rule, and his 21 years in office are remembered for economic mismanagement and martial law. The end for him came when he ran a hotly contested “snap” presidential election against Corazon Aquino—wife of the assassinated politician, Ninoy Aquino—in February 1986. Marcos was officially declared the winner by the National Assembly, but there were widespread allegations of vote-rigging and electoral fraud. Corazon Aquino refused to concede defeat. Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and General Fidel Ramos believed Marcos’ election victory to be fraudulent and defected to Aquino’s side. They called on Marcos to resign. On Sunday, 23 February 1986, thousands of people gathered outside the two military camps on Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), in Manila. Members of the armed forces resigned, and others refused Marcos’ orders to disperse the increasing numbers of people joining the ‘EDSA’ or ‘People Power’ Revolution. People remained in the streets for 3 days as a human buffer against attack, with the numbers increasing all the time. Enrile declared the formation of a provisional government under Aquino. She was inaugurated by her supporters at the same time that Marcos was inaugurated in Malacañang Palace. Nongovernment-controlled TV stations covered only Aquino’s inauguration. Marcos realized that he was defeated. He and his family were helped by the Americans to flee to Hawaii, where he died in exile in 1989. Imelda returned to the Philippines in 1991. She ran and won a congressional seat representing her home province of Ilocos Norte, where her son, Ferdinand Marcos, Jr. is governor.
Corazon Aquino began the task of restoring democracy. The discredited National Assembly was disbanded, and free speech and free press were re-established. A new Philippine Constitution came into effect on 11 February 1987. Aquino’s presidency survived seven coup attempts and made major strides towards re-establishing internal peace and national pride.
At the end of Aquino’s term in 1992, General Fidel Ramos was freely elected as president of the Philippines. His term was marked by successful negotiations with the Communist New People’s Army (NPA) and the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), bringing peace to disputed areas, and his campaign against corruption in the civil service. Ramos also introduced legislation encouraging foreign investment in the Philippines. Ramos was succeeded by Joseph ‘Erap’ Estrada, who won the presidential election of 1998, mostly due to things he said onscreen during his years as a popular actor. His brief time as president was marked by corruption accusations. In 2001, he was ousted in a civilian coup backed by the military called People Power II, or EDSA II.
He was replaced by his vice-president, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who finished out his term, then ran and won the presidential election in May 2004. Her term as president was positively marked by an upswing in economic growth to 5% over the 7 years since the beginning of her term. However, various scandals and coup attempts have also made a mark on her term.
Noynoy Aquino, the son of Corazon Aquino, took office in June 2010. Starting June 2016 Rodrigo Duterte is president.
Government
The Philippine Government, as determined by the 1987 Constitution, is composed of three branches: executive (president, vice president, and cabinet), legislative (Senate with 24 senators, and House of Representatives with 250 congressmen), and judiciary (Supreme Court and lower courts). The President is elected to a single 6-year term. Provincial governors head the 80 provinces, which are divided into towns. The smallest political units at the local level are barangays—every citizen is a member of a barangay assembly, which meets to discuss local and national politics. Barangay officials—a captain, six councilmen, a treasurer, and a secretary—are elected.
Language
More than 70 dialects are spoken by the many different ethnic groups that populate the country. Nine of the major languages are spoken by 89% of the population. In 1937, Filipino or Tagalog was declared the national language. Taga- means origin, while ilog means river. The river referred to is probably the Pasig River in Manila, Luzon, where the ancient Tagalog people were centered. People from the Philippines are called Filipinos, and the Tagalog language is often referred to as Filipino.
Three hundred years of Spanish colonialism are still evident in the many Spanish words that have been re-spelled to fit local norms, and incorporated into Filipino. One example is the days of the week: Wednesday is Miercoles in Spanish and becomes Miyerkules in Filipino.
Currency
The currency is the Philippine piso or peso (PhP). One peso = 100 centavos. Bank notes come in PhP20, PhP50, PhP100, PhP200, PhP500, and PhP1,000. Coins are in 1-, 5-, 10-peso pieces; and 5-, 10-, and 25-centavo pieces. It is advisable to carry small denominations while traveling. The current exchange rate can be found at http://www.bsp.gov.ph or http://www.un.org/depts/treasury.
Cultural values
Newcomers to the Philippines will notice a melting pot of many cultures developed over the centuries through migrations, trading, and colonization by Malay, Arab, Chinese, Indian, Spanish, and American peoples. The influence of all these cultures is apparent in contemporary Philippine legal, educational, and justice systems; in religion and government; and in basic social values and beliefs. The Philippines has specific cultural values that differ from western countries and from other Asian countries. To better understand Philippine culture, one must examine the functions of basic social units like the family and recognize six major Philippine values: love and duty to the extended family; pakikisama (smooth social interaction); utang na loob (debt of gratitude or reciprocity of favors); hiya (shame, to be avoided); amorpropio (self-esteem); and bahala na (what will be, will be).
The following section was contributed by Dr. Gelia T. Castillo, Philippine National Scientist for social science and a professor of rural sociology at the University of the Philippines Los Baños.
The importance of the family
The family includes the nuclear family and all relatives, godparents, sponsors, and anyone else who assumes some family responsibility. The Filipino family is described as residentially nuclear but functionally extended. This means that, although the household may be composed only of parents and children, family relationships of mutual caring and sharing, and a sense of responsibility for each other, occur across households of siblings, three generations, and relatives of both parents, including in-laws. Reciprocal patterns of assistance are characteristic of such relationships—those who have more give to those who have less.
Filipinos put a tremendous value on education and family members support each other to get ahead in life, often through college education. Parents and siblings make great sacrifices to send children to school and to further their dreams, and invest equally in boy and girl children. In the past 20 years, an ‘abroad syndrome’ has emerged, wherein families invest in relatives or children who go abroad to work as overseas contract workers (OCW) or who emigrate. Even mothers will leave small children at home to go far away in search for better jobs that will enable them to buy a plot of land or a house of their own, or provide their children with a college education. There are many financial success stories from OCWs, as well as tales of thwarted dreams.
Families take great pride in helping a member towards success but are also expected to be there in times of misfortune, the family functioning as a source of social security. The majority of Filipino families have no insurance or welfare to adequately cover them for sickness, old age, unemployment, education, death, accident, or other needs. Interdependence among family members is basic to the social structure, whereas independence can be seen as selfish. The needs of the family and responsibility to it are highly valued. The extended family is responsible for the upward social mobility of many Filipinos who come from humble beginnings.
Socialness as a value
Social skill and the ability to relate to others in a non-confrontational style that leaves other people with dignity and self-respect is most highly valued, and is called pakikisama. Filipinos are reluctant to engage in open conflict in relationships, at work, or at home. To avoid causing shame or embarrassment so as to preserve a person’s self-esteem, or amorproprio, Filipinos strive to be sensitive to others and maintain good interpersonal relations. Being offended or giving offense is a serious issue, causing loss of face and shame, or hiya. To avoid giving offense and to augment good social feeling, people will avoid saying ‘no’ directly; will, when possible, often yield to the majority opinion; will avoid giving criticisms without a balancing word of praise; and, will strive to maintain peace in all relationships. Complimenting someone’s skill at pakikisama is the greatest compliment of all.
Being socially connected with other people in an atmosphere of ‘we-ness’ is much preferred to being alone. The word privacy has no direct translation in Pilipino. The closest to it is ‘to be alone’, and to be alone is ‘lonely.’ Filipinos find it difficult to understand why anyone would want to be alone. This socialness can be construed by westerners as an annoying intrusion into one’s privacy. For example, Filipinos will not hesitate to ask foreigners how much money they make, why they have only three children, or about any other matter the latter might consider private or personal. The value of social communication and ‘we-ness’ is a most important value, whereas privacy and independence are not as highly regarded.
The wheel of life
Filipinos believe that it is important to remember those who are at the bottom when you are at the top, because, as the ‘wheel of life’ turns, you may find yourself back at the bottom. Filipinos are always admonished by their elders to remember where they came from and who helped them to get ahead. Compassionate behavior and warmth in interpersonal relationships, particularly with those ‘below’ you on the social ladder, are admired. Being callous and brusque, even in an attempt to be fair and just, is regarded with disapproval, particularly when implemented by one’s superiors. Debts of gratitude to those who have helped one get ahead in life are remembered and repaid in a system known as utang na loob. It is often said that what one gives to others is returned in countless ways. This system of favors received and favors repaid fosters interdependence and stems from having to deal with unplanned circumstances in the natural course of life, especially under conditions of poverty. These are the cultural mechanisms for income re-distribution in a society with uneven wealth distribution.
The status of women in the family and in society
As citizens, Filipino women have a great deal of equality with men, although a double standard of sexual and moral behavior still prevails. The Philippines is different from other Asian countries, where there is a marked bias for sons. Daughters are given as much opportunity to go to school as their brothers, and the current university student population in the Philippines has more females than males. Female professionals are not rare in any field.
Fun, humor, music, and dance
Filipinos love to laugh, to sing, and to eat, and do all three things at once at the drop of a hat. Filipinos prefer to eat three meals and two snacks each day, and each event has a party-like atmosphere. Jokes are part of daily conversation and greeting, and sharing a joke is a sign of social acceptance. Foreigners who value intense seriousness will have problems working with Filipinos. Music, art, and dance in the Philippines are rich, deep, diverse, and peopled with abundant talent. The country has more than its share of singing ability, and most social events include impromptu concerts by highly talented musicians. Furthermore, the Filipino movie industry is very successful and Filipinos are great moviegoers and committed movie fans. Popular actors, singers, and musicians enjoy a considerable following, even in remote areas of the country.
Religion and the church
Filipinos are churchgoers, regardless of religious affiliation. The vast majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Religion is an extremely important part of daily life for Filipinos, who value its presence as a support in times of both joy and sorrow. Many significant religious events throughout the year, like Holy Week, barrio fiestas, All Saints’ Day, and Christmas, are also social occasions when families gather and take a break from work. The Philippines celebrates the longest Christmas period in the world, starting soon after All Saints’ Day (1 November) and lasting until the Feast of the Three Kings on 6 January. Mindanao, in southern Philippines, is predominantly Moslem.
Filipino time
Filipino culture values patience and the acceptance of life’s foibles and fate, and an understanding that people do not control the universe. Bahala na, or ‘what will be, will be’, often translates into a relatively relaxed attitude to time in social settings. Foreigners are often told that Filipino time means ‘never on time,’ and that there are no sanctions for being late. This is not true in professional settings, where Filipinos are extremely conscious of being on time, particularly when relating to foreigners or an international organization, and they expect foreigners to honor appointments on time as well.
Filipino Overseas Workers (OFWs)
There are more than 11 million overseas Filipinos worldwide, equivalent to about 11% of the total population of the Philippines. Each year, over a million Filipinos leave home to work abroad. More than 1.5 million left to work overseas in 2010, with about one-third of these going to the Middle East and the rest to Asia, North America, and Europe. Others emigrate and become permanent residents of another country. The USA has the largest population of Filipinos permanently living abroad with about four million. Overseas Filipinos often work as doctors, nurses, caregivers, teachers, IT and engineering specialists, technicians, and household helpers. Many go abroad to support their families back home through remittances, which they earn elsewhere but send home to be spent in the Philippines. Money sent back to the Philippines is a major factor in the country's economy, amounting to more than USD 20 billion in 2011.
The lack of well-paying jobs in the Philippines combined with a widespread knowledge of English—a result of being colonized by the US for half a century— have made Filipinos one of the most internationally mobile people. Unfortunately, this exodus includes an increasing number of skilled workers taking on unskilled work overseas, resulting in what has been referred to as ‘brain drain’, particularly in the health and education sectors. Also, the exodus can result in underemployment, as in cases where doctors undergo retraining to become nurses in another country where they can earn more as nurses than as doctors in the Philippines.
Many domestic helpers working for expatriate staff at IRRI and other international organizations have worked overseas, and others hope to do so. Those willing to work overseas often see it as the only way to save enough money to open their own business.
